Study Guide: INTRODUCTION TO GREAT BRITAIN

Introduction to Great Britain

Dr. Gary L. Todd, Ph.D., Professor of History

Peter Hall Room A310

Phone 62607770

Office Hours by Appointment

email: LeeFoxx1949@gmail.com

Lecture 2: Great Britain: The Country and the People; British Government

Britain: a tiny country with an enormous impact on the world

British Isles

Ireland

Great Britain or United Kingdom (officially United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland):

– England

– Scotland

– Wales

– Northern Ireland

Maritime Climate

Influences on Britain’s climate:

– Gulf Stream

– North Atlantic Drift

– Southwesterly prevailing winds

Early explorers followed ocean currents & prevailing winds

Results of ocean currents & prevailing winds

Warm winters
Cool summers
Changeability
Abundant rainfall
Long twilight in summer due to high latitude

British People

Great Britain is made up of successive waves of invaders and/or immigrants
The earliest inhabitants of Britain are unknown
Most likely they built Stonehenge 4000 years ago
Celts (Scots, Irish, Welsh) invaded Britain c. 500 BC
Romans invaded England in 1^st century
Romans brought both Christianity & Roman pagan religion
Romans built Hadrian’s Wall to keep out northern barbarians (Scots)
They abandoned England when Rome was threatened in 5^th century
Romans left behind many buildings, but little other lasting influence
Angles, Saxons, Jutes (Germanic tribes) invaded & settled England during the 5-7^th centuries
They made significant contributions to the early English language
Old English language is Germanic
Vikings (also called Norsemen or Danes) plundered England & settled in the 9-10^th century
Vikings come from Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, & Sweden)
Normans led by William the Conqueror conquered England in 1066
Normans are descendants of Vikings who settled in Normandy in France
Normans made French the language of government and the ruling class
1066 was the last successful invasion of England
Immigrants from all over the British Empire (Indians, Arabs, Africans) settled in Britain in the 20^th century
They brought many changes in language, culture, & religion
Some have created serious problems of terrorism

Religion

In the past England tried to enforce religious uniformity
Members of other religions or sects were often persecuted or even killed
Today religious freedom in Britain is guaranteed by law
Established (official) church: Church of England (or Anglican Church)
Protestant
Founded in 16^th century when King Henry VIII left the Roman Catholic Church
Head of Anglican Church: Archbishop of Canterbury
Canterbury Cathedral: Home of Archbishop of Canterbury
York Minster Cathedral: Home of #2 Anglican Archbishop

Scotland

Established church: Church of Scotland
Protestant
Presbyterian (a specific type of Protestant church ruled by elders rather than by a single head)
Founded by Protestant Reformer John Knox in 16^th century

Ireland

Roman Catholic Church
Head of Catholic Church: the Pope in Rome

Free Churches of Britain

Members of Free Churches were formerly called dissenters or nonconformists
Principal Free Churches:

– Methodist

– Baptist

– Quaker (Society of Friends)

– Salvation Army

Language of Britain

English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages
It evolved in three stages
First stage: Old English (Anglo-Saxon or Germanic)
5-12th centuries
Second stage: Middle English (Norman French influence)
12-15^th centuries
1400: Geoffrey Chaucer, Canterbury Tales
Modern English: 15^th century to the present
Major influences:
- William Shakespeare (late 1500s-early 1600s)
- 1611 King James Bible
- 1755 Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary
- British Empire & spread of English: 19^th & 20^th centuries

Government

Britain today is a Constitutional Monarchy
King or queen reigns but does not rule
Cabinet of government officials called ministers actually rule
The system of government has evolved for over 1000 years
9^th century: the king had absolute power
12^th century: law courts established
1215, King John signed Magna Carta granting limited rights to nobility
Magna Carta is the foundation of constitutional government
13^th century: Montfort Parliament major step in evolution of that body
17^th century civil war, Parliament vs. King Charles I, resulted in limited constitutional monarchy
First political parties born shortly afterward
King lost importance; ministers gained
19^th century: growth of government responsible to the people
Representative government

Parliament Today

Prime Minister: leader of majority party
Cabinet: appointed by Prime Minister (heads of executive departments)

House of Lords

Upper house of Parliament
About 1170 members – none elected
About 800 hereditary nobility, 2 Anglican archbishops, & 24 Anglican bishops
About 20 law lords appointed for life to handle legal matters
Remainder are life peers given rank of baron in honor of some accomplishment – title & seat in Lords dies with them
Presiding officer: Lord Chancellor
Limited Veto power: can delay but not defeat bill passed by Commons
Highest court of appeal
Moral influence, but little real power

House of Commons

Britain’s real governing body: makes laws
Representative assembly
Elected by people in general elections
Based on population
Almost all British citizens age 18 or over may vote except peers & mentally ill
Currently 650 seats
Power of the purse
Each member represents a voting district called a constituency
Members need not reside in their constituency
General election must be held at least every 5 years
An election may be called at any time

Civil Service

Civil Servants run government departments
Selected by impartial examinations
Not based on party membership

Local Government

3 levels of government:

– Central government

– County government

– District government

– 1997: Scottish Parliament

– 1997: Welsh Assembly

British Monarchy

Over 1000 years old
Queen can trace ancestry to England’s earliest kings in 800’s
Throne passes from king or queen to oldest son (Prince of Wales)
Throne passes to oldest daughter if no son
Queen Elizabeth II, 1952-present
King or Queen has no real power
Ceremonial functions only
English people overwhelmingly love their monarchs
Monarchy great asset to tourist industry
Windsor Castle: Main residence of Queen Elizabeth II
Buckingham Palace: Queen’s Residence in London

Lecture 3: Politics and Law; Economy, Culture, and Social Life

British Politics

Two party system:
- Conservative Party (formerly Tory Party)
- Labour Party (formerly Whig Party)

Minor parties exist but are unimportant

Conservative Party

Formerly Tory Party
Basic beliefs:
- Pragmatism
- Free enterprise
- Privatization of business & industry
- Individualism
Better educated
Middle & upper middle class
Greatest modern leader: Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 1979-1991

Labour Party

Formerly Whig Party
Basic beliefs:
- Nationalization of key industries
- Welfare state
- Rejection of class struggle
Traditional membership:
- Unionists, liberals, socialists, Fabians
- Working-class & poor
1995: Labour Party abandoned socialism
Few significant differences today between Conservatives & Labour
Current Labour Party Prime Minister Gordon Brown (recently replaced Tony Blair)

Elections

Nationwide general elections for seats in Parliament
650 electoral districts called constituencies
MPs need not reside in their constituencies
Age 18 & over to vote
General elections every 5 years
Prime Minister may call for early elections
Independent candidates may run
Media & campaigning important for gaining votes
“Safe seats” for each party
Majority party selects Prime Minister

British Law

Sources of law:
- 1. Common Law (centuries of experience & precedents)
- 2. Acts of Parliament
- 3. European Union law

Liberty and Justice

Magna Carta, 1215, Great Charter of English liberty
British and Americans both consider the Magna Carta the foundation of their freedoms and their justice system
Important Principles of British & American law & justice:
- Due process of law
- Individual rights
- Trial by jury
- Writ of habeas corpus: no arbitrary imprisonment
Levels of law courts:
- Magistrates’ courts
- County courts
- Supreme Court
- House of Lords: Final court of appeals

Jury Trial: a fundamental right

Trial by jury of peers (equals; usually 12)
Unanimous verdict or hung jury
Rules of evidence: all evidence must be legally obtained

British Economics

Capitalist, Supply Side, or Free Market System
Theoretical basis: Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, 1776
Underlying principle of capitalism: Entrepreneurs pursuing self-interest benefit everyone
Example: Bill Gates & Microsoft

Principles of Capitalism

Economic freedom
Individualism
Equality
Competition
Role of government: Laissez-faire
“Hands off the economy”

Abuses of Capitalism

Greed
Exploitation
Child labor
Oppressive working conditions
Low wages
Dishonesty in marketing

Personal Opinion

Deng Xiaoping understood economics better
But Mao Zedong was correct when he said, “Serve the People”
Capitalism must be tempered with compassion
Helping others is always more important than getting rich
Getting rich is all right, but use your riches to help others

Public vs. Private Sector

Labour Party policies 1946-1979:
- State-owned enterprises – but they proved to be very inefficient
- Welfare state – led to very high taxes
- British economy suffered greatly under Labour economic policies

Conservative Party Reforms

Began in 1979 under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher
Denationalization (or privatization) of key industries
Abandonment of socialistic policies
Private sector more efficient but more abuses

Industry in Britain

Industrial Revolution began c. 1750
New inventions contribute:
- Spinning & weaving machines
- Farm machinery
- Steam engine
Industrial Revolution made England the greatest world power of 19^th century
Deposits of iron & coal promoted great steelmaking industry
Cheap American cotton & domestic wool promoted textile industry

British Manufacturing Industry Principal Products

Clothing & textiles
Foods & beverages
Machinery & metal goods
Motor vehicles & ships
Glass & glassware
Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals
Electrical goods & electronics
Printing & publishing
British economy largely post-industrial
Offshore oil fields in North Sea – greatest oil resources in Europe
Fishing still important
Growth of service industry & high tech
Service industry accounts for more than half of GDP and employs over 2/3 of all workers
Invention of railways, 1820s
Shipping & merchant marine – Britain is an island nation
Concorde & Airbus
Royal Mail, first post office, 1635
Growth of high tech industry today
Importer of raw materials
Exporter of finished goods

Agriculture

Very intensive & highly productive
¼ of farmland devoted to crops:
- Grain (wheat, barley, oats, rye)
- Potatoes
- Sugar beets
3/4 of farmland for grazing
- Cattle for beef & dairy
- Dairy industry: milk & cheese important to British diet
- Sheep-farming supplies woolen industry
- Pigs
- Poultry & eggs
Government policies to raise farm prices:
- Land taken out of production
- Government subsidies
- Production quotas (maximum allowed)
Result is high taxes & higher prices for consumers
Government policies are very controversial

“British Disease”

Labour Party Socialist policies:
- State-owned industries inefficient
- Welfare state very expensive
- Productive people heavily taxed to pay for non-productive people
- British economy unable to compete in world market

Margaret Thatcher Reforms

Supply-side theory: free markets rather than government control
Popular capitalism: give workers a share in the company that employs them
Britain, America, & China all faced similar economic hardships in the 1970s
All 3 countries adopted similar free market solutions:
- Deng Xiaoping 1978 reforms
- Margaret Thatcher 1979-1991
- Ronald Reagan 1981-1989
- Free market reforms proved very successful in all three countries

British Cities

Britain is highly urbanized
London: more than 11% total population; capital of England & the United Kingdom
Edinburgh: capital of Scotland
Belfast: capital of Northern Ireland
Cardiff: capital of Wales
Dublin: capital of Ireland (not in UK)

British Society

Reputation for decency & fair play
Gentleman ideal (contrast to America’s cowboy ideal)
Pioneer in democracy
Primogeniture: eldest son inherits nearly everything; leads to small nobility class
High social mobility
Rejection of class struggle
Large middle class
Influence of Christianity
Influence of Queen Victoria: personal morality & devotion to family
Nuclear family
Families patriarchal
Strict monogamy
Liberation of women
Complete independence of children at 18
Great social problem today: assimilation of foreign minorities
Example: recent Muslim terrorism

Great British Scientists

Modern scientific research method: Francis Bacon, 16^th century
Sir Isaac Newton: laws of motion & gravity
Michael Faraday: electric generator
Charles Darwin: theory of evolution, 1859

British Education

Literacy rate over 99%
2-tier system of government & private schools
Premier British Universities: Oxford & Cambridge

Lecture 4: Earliest Inhabitants and Roman Occupation

Earliest Britons are unknown

No one knows when first people arrived in England
From c. 8000 to 3000 BC people from Spain & France settled on hilltops in southern England
They made tools of flint, grew crops, made pottery, and raised cattle & sheep
C. 2000 BC: people from Rhine & Danube River regions of Europe migrated to England
They wove cloth, mined tin, & made bronze tools
They also built stone monuments

Stonehenge, on Plain of Salisbury

We have recently discovered many graves at Stonehenge

DNA tests of burials show some came from Germany, France, Switzerland, & Mediterranean

Modern theories about Stonehenge

First monument begun c. 3100 BC using timber

C. 2600 BC: builders began replacing timber with stone

C. 1600 BC: last known construction at Stonehenge

No one left written records and scholars are uncertain how Stonehenge was used

It was used for burials from the beginning

The design has astronomical uses

It may have been used for ancestor worship, healing, & other religious activities

Celts

Celts began crossing the English Channel c. 500 BC
They were warlike tribal people from Europe
Gaels were the earliest invading Celtic tribe
They settled in west & north of Great Britain
Britons (or Brythons) were second wave of Celtic invaders
They occupied most of today’s England & Wales
Worshiped nature gods & practiced human sacrifice
Priests were called Druids
Celts used iron, mined tin, & made woolen cloth
They traded with Gauls in France and Celtic tribes in Ireland
Celts are ancestors of Scots, Irish, & Welsh
Gaelic & Welsh languages are Celtic

Roman conquest

Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (France) in 55 BC and crossed English Channel with small force to explore Britain
Returned next year with army
Defeated some Celts & then returned to Rome
Julius Caesar did not follow up his victory
Emperor Claudius invaded Britannia in 43 AD & defeated Celts
Romans put down major revolt by Iceni tribe, 61 AD
Completed conquest of England by 80s AD
Rome conquered the entire Mediterranean
Rome controlled most of Europe, including much of Britain
The Roman Empire was contemporary with Han China
Hadrian’s Wall built in 120s AD to keep out wild Scots & Picts from North
Hadrian’s Wall separated England from Scotland
Another wall in the west protected England from the Celtic Welsh
Roman roads connected much of England
Roman baths were centers of social & political life
Romans built a fort on the banks of the Thames River
They named it Londinium
Londinium became London
Romans left in 410 AD when Rome was threatened by barbarians
Roman influence was limited & short-lived
England was now at mercy of new foreign invaders
Anglo-Saxons invaded England after the Romans left

King Arthur

Semi-legendary king
C. 5^th or 6^th century
Possible Roman officer or son of Roman officer
Legends may be based on local chieftain who united Britons against Anglo-Saxon invaders
Arthur fought with mighty sword named “Excalibur”
Arthur was the ideal king
Arthur founded the Knights of the Round Table

Early Christianity

Traditionally brought to Britain by Joseph of Arimathea in 1^st century
Celtic communities developed a strong Christian tradition
During next few centuries the Bishop of Rome gained more power & became Pope (“Papa”) or supreme leader of Western Christendom
Celtic Christians did not recognize Pope’s authority
This will lead to later conflict

England after the Romans left

Almost no written records for this period
Much warfare and confusion
Cities mostly abandoned
Civilization gradually died out
Christianity nearly disappeared
Latin and Celtic languages ceased – only a few words remained a permanent part of the language of England
Only roads, walls, bridges, and buildings remained
Anglo-Saxon invaders will soon transform Britain

Lecture 5: Anglo-Saxon England: Beginnings of English Society, 5^th – 11^th Centuries

Anglo-Saxon invasion & conquest of England

Angles, Saxons, Jutes from Germany
5^th – 7^th centuries
Fierce warriors
Pagans worshiped Germanic deities
England means “Angle Land”

Anglo-Saxon influence on English language

Old English is Anglo-Saxon
Place names:
Sussex (south Saxon)
Wessex (west Saxon)
Essex (east Saxon)
East Anglia, Mercia, & Northumbria
Hundreds of towns throughout England
Tiu
God of war
Tuesday honors Tiu
Woden (Odin)
King of heaven
Wednesday honors Woden
Thor
God of storms
Thursday is “Thor’s Day”
Freya
Goddess of peace
“Freya’s Day” is Friday

Anglo-Saxon Words (gh, ch, & ght endings)

Cough, Enough, Tough, Rough, Laugh
Teach, Reach, Fight, Right, Sight

Anglo-Saxons were warlike

Anglo-Saxon gods were warlike

Pagan Anglo-Saxons soon converted to Christianity

Reintroduction of Christianity

597 – Pope in Rome sent Augustine to Canterbury
Converted Ethelbert, King of Jutes & nobles
Established convents & monasteries
Monks convert common people
Roman missionaries convert much of southern England
Celtic missionaries convert northern tribes, Picts & Scots
Roman missionaries: Pope supreme
Celtic Christians: Local church supreme

Synod of Whitby, 664 AD

Synod of Whitby debated the differences between Roman & Celtic Christians
Roman view prevailed – England became officially Roman Catholic
Celtic Christians continued from monastery on island of Iona
Relations between Iona & Canterbury remained harmonious

Christian Influence on Anglo-Saxon Poetry

Caedmon: author of earliest datable English poetry, 730s AD
Caedmon was a peasant who guarded cattle of abbey of Whitby
One night he saw a vision of a man who told him to sing of the Creation
He composed this poem in his sleep and repeated it the next morning

Caedmon’s Poem in Old English (Anglo-Saxon)

Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard,
metudaes maecti end his modgidanc,
uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuaes,
eci dryctin, or astelidae;
he aerist scop aelda barnum
heben til hrofe, haleg scepen.
Tha middungeard moncynnaes uard,
eci dryctin, aefter tiadae
firum foldu, frea allmectig.

Caedmon’s Poem in Modern English

Now we must praise the guardian of the heavenly kingdom,
the powers of the Creator and his thoughts, the works of the Father of glory,
as he, the eternal Lord,
appointed the beginning of every wondrous thing;
He, the holy Lord, the Guardian of mankind,
first created for the children of men the heaven as a roof.
Then the eternal Lord, Ruler Almighty,
afterwards adorned the world, the earth, for men.

Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms

German tribes formed separate nations
Saxons occupied southern England
Saxons became East Saxons, Middle Saxons, South Saxons, & West Saxons
Angles lived in central, N. & E. England
Angles formed Mercia, East Anglia, & Northumbria
Tribes slowly formed 7 separate kingdoms called Heptarchy: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, & Wessex
From c. 500-800 AD Northumbria, Mercia, & Wessex controlled other 6 in turn
King Egbert of Wessex: last king to control Heptarchy – often considered first king of England
Britons were most likely enslaved
The term Briton is often synonymous with slave
By 700 AD pagan Anglo-Saxons had converted to Christianity
Monasteries became centers of religion, scholarship & education
They had large libraries and schools
Religion, education, and the arts flourished in this time

Classes of society

Thanes or nobles
Churls (ordinary free men)
Slaves
- Many Britons were enslaved
- Also war captives & criminals
- Sometimes people sold children (or themselves) into slavery to pay debts
- Christianity lessened harshness of slavery

Duty to one’s lord

Lords provided weapons, horses, & feasting for their retainers
Retainers were prepared to die to protect their lord
Loyalty to one’s lord was the Anglo-Saxon’s highest honor

Anglo-Saxon (English) law

Different classes had different standards
Penalty for killing a man varied with his class or social status
Usually it involved payment to the man’s kin, but it could involve killing the killer
If his social rank allowed, an accused might swear an oath of innocence
Sometimes the oath of an accused was not allowed
Then he would undergo “trial by ordeal,” or the Judgment of God
The Church handled the ordeals
An ordeal began with a 3-day fast
The accused was admonished to confess his guilt, before taking Catholic mass

Ordeal by hot water

Accused must remove a stone from a pot of boiling water (or oil)
The hand was then bound up
If the wound healed after 3 days without festering, accused was cleared of charge
If not, then he was declared guilty
But his punishment was still less than if he had been caught in the act

Ordeal by hot iron

Accused must carry one pound of hot iron for 9 feet (3 meters)
Hand was examined after 3 days
For a serious charge, weight of iron was increased to 3 pounds
For hot water ordeal, accused must plunge arm to the elbow instead of wrist
Trial by Combat probably pre-dates English law

Vikings (Danes) invaded England in 9^th & 10^th centuries

Vikings (Danes) easily conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, except Wessex

Vikings destroyed the monasteries and schools
Danes began to settle in England
Vikings added Danish elements to English language
Danes controlled nearly half of England
Viking/Danish England was called the Danelaw

King Alfred the Great, 849-899

King Alfred built the first English navy

Alfred was a devout Christian
He defeated the Danes in 886, forced them to withdraw to NE third of England, and converted many to Christianity
Established schools & repaired monasteries
Invited scholars to come to England
Learned to read and write Latin & English
Translated Scriptures into language of his people

Death of Alfred, 899 AD, and Rise of the Danes

During 100 years after Alfred’s death, Danes gradually expanded Danelaw
1016 AD: Canute (brother of King of Denmark) defeated King Ethelred II (Ethelred the “Unready”) of Wessex and became ruler of England

King Canute, 1016-1035

King of England, Denmark & Norway
Wise & just ruler
Danes & Anglo-Saxons share power
Forced Scots to submit

King Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066

Canute succeeded by 2 sons who were unable to continue his kingdom
Edward restored Anglo-Saxon rule
Appointed many Normans to top jobs
Called “Confessor” because of his devout Christian faith
Built first church on what is now site of Westminster Abbey in London
Death led to power struggle

Norman Invasion 1066

Vikings=Northmen=Norsemen=Normans
Settled France early 900s
English nobles chose Harold, Earl of Wessex, as king
Norman French relative, William, Duke of Normandy, claimed Edward had promised him the throne
King Harold took throne of England & defeated another rival named Harold
His victorious army was weakened
William, Duke of Normandy, saw an opportunity
Battle of Hastings, October, 1066
Harold’s English army meets William’s Norman French army
Harold is killed at Hastings
Norman army victorious
On Christmas day, 1066, William the Conqueror crowned first Anglo-Norman king of England
William established strong central government
Appointed Normans to top positions
Divided conquered land among Normans
Forced most Anglo-Saxons into serfdom
William built many cathedrals & castles like Tower of London
Beginnings of English Feudalism
William replaced English bishops with Normans
King became head of bishops
King William ordered a survey of land & property in England in 1085
Used it to set taxes & divide large estates among his followers
“Domesday Book”
Anglo-Saxons mostly became serfs at first
Kept their own language & many of their customs
2 languages in England until c. 1400
Oppression, then intermingling
Normans & Anglo-Saxons gradually became united people

Lecture 6: Norman England, 1066-1307

William the Conqueror

First Norman king of England, 1066-1087
Ended Anglo-Saxon rule by defeating King Harold at Battle of Hastings, 1066
William ruled autocratically – brought church & barons under his personal control
Replaced English bishops with Normans
Distributed land to reward his followers
Built castles throughout England to control hostile population
Beginnings of English Feudalism
William had no permanent residence
He travelled around England to survey his domain and demonstrate his power
He held court & a major festival 3 times a year in 3 different towns
Normans were a foreign army of occupation
They built many castles to protect themselves and control the population
King William ordered a survey of land & property in England in 1085
He used it to set taxes & divide large estates among his followers
Anglo-Saxon nobility mostly killed or fled
Anglo-Saxon commoners mostly became serfs
Kept their own language & many of their customs
3 languages in England: French (spoken by nobility), Old English/Anglo-Saxon (commoners), Latin (scholars & church)
Some oppression, then intermingling
Normans & Anglo-Saxons gradually became united people

William II, 1087-1100

William the Conqueror succeeded by 2 sons
William II was illiterate, brutal, & an excellent warrior & hunter
His nobles revolted in 1088 & he invaded Scotland in 1097
Killed by an arrow while hunting
Clergy refused him a church funeral

Henry I, 1100-1135

Youngest son of William the Conqueror
Suppressed serious revolt of barons, then ruled land in peace for over 30 years
Helped unite Saxons & Normans
Wise & just ruler

King Stephen, Empress Maud, & the period of anarchy, 1135-53

Empress Matilda (Maud)

Daughter of Henry I
Henry wanted her to succeed him
Nephew Stephen took throne instead
Maud’s attempt to seize throne led to civil war

King Stephen, 1135-1153

“Of outstanding skill in arms, but in other things almost an idiot, except that he was more inclined towards evil” – contemporary view
“…by his good nature and by the way he jested and enjoyed himself even in the company of his inferiors, Stephen earned an affection that can hardly be imagined.”
“Basically he was a kind and amiable man whose friends would not abandon him when he was in trouble.”
Stephen’s reign full of strife – called “the Anarchy”
Stephen & Maud both gave away land & titles to buy support
Stephen finally forced to recognize son of Maud as his successor

King Henry II, 1154-1189

Grandson of Henry I & son of Maud (Matilda)
Father was Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou
Henry II founded Plantagenet Dynasty
Henry & successors sometimes called Angevins (from Anjou, France)
Married Eleanor of Aquitaine, most famous woman of the age
Acquired western France through marriage to Eleanor
Also claimed Scotland, Wales, & eastern Ireland
Continued grandfather’s policy of limiting power of nobles & centralizing his power
Made Anglo-Saxon common law supreme law of land – based on precedent decisions of circuit courts
Introduced jury system to replace trial by ordeal or battle
Tried to force Roman Catholic Church to submit to his authority
1162 made Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury
Power struggle between king & church
Becket murdered by 4 of Henry’s noble
Becket made saint
English begin pilgrimages to his tomb
King does public penance

Geoffrey Chaucer, c.1340-1400

Greatest English poet of middle ages
Collected stories told by pilgrims on way to shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury
Geoffrey Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, 1400
Written in Middle English
Major influence on evolution of English language

Oxford was an important crossroads since Roman times

Oxford University began there in 12^th century

Cambridge was the site of a second medieval university

Sons of Henry II

In his later years, Henry’s sons often rebelled against him
Two of them became the next 2 kings
Statue of King Richard I, the “Lion-Hearted”

Richard I, 1189-1199, spent most of his reign overseas

King Richard Coeur de Leon (“Lion-Hearted”) led crusade to capture Jerusalem

Richard captured Acre and tried to recapture Jerusalem from the Moslems
He spent only six months of his reign in England and did little for the good of England
Kidnapped by Austrian duke on way home from crusade
Held as prisoner & released for ransom
Fought war with France & killed during siege of a French castle, 1199

King John, 1199-1216

Became king on death of brother Richard I
Tyrannical & greedy – generally viewed as one of England’s worst kings
Lost nearly all of England’s holdings in France in 1205
Legend of Robin Hood dates to reign of King John
Barons revolt & force John to sign Magna Carta, 1215

Magna Carta (Great Charter)

1. King observes rights of barons; barons observe rights of their vassals
2. No taxes without consent of Great Council; farmers & merchants protected from too harsh fines
3. Right to jury trial
4. Merchants can move freely
Protects only freemen (12% of population)
Later extended to serfs
Social order now regulated by law – begins to end feudal despotism

King Henry III, 1216-1272

Eldest son of King John
Became king at age 9 but did not rule until 1227
Fickle tyrant who surrounded himself with foreign influences
Taxed & robbed the people
Obeyed Pope at expense of his people
Foolish policies alienated most people

Simon De Montfort

King’s brother-in-law
Defender of Magna Carta
Led rebellion of barons – defeated king
Reformed Great Council
1265 established model English parliament
Invited commoners for first time
House of Lords most important at first
Advice & petitions only at first
Major step in evolution of parliamentary government

King Edward I, 1272-1307

Son & successor of Henry III
Conquered Wales, 1277-1283
Eldest son & heir given title Prince of Wales
Built many castles along Welsh border
Devoted most of his reign to conquering Scotland
Edward I invaded Scotland 1296
William Wallace (Braveheart) opposed him
Wallace known for great strength & courage

William Wallace

Scottish national hero made famous by movie “Braveheart”
Defeated English at Stirling Bridge
Edward I returned with a great English army which defeated Scots at Falkirk
Wallace continued fight for Scottish freedom for 7 years
He led guerrilla forces operating in Scottish highlands
English captured Wallace & executed him for treason

Robert the Bruce

Claimed throne of Scotland
Led army against Edward II (son of Edward I)

Bannockburn, 1314

Great Scottish victory against English army
Scots led by Robert the Bruce
Preserved Scottish independence for many more years

Lecture 7: England in the late middle ages

King Edward II, 1307-1327

Son of Edward I
Incompetent ruler
Loss at Bannockburn guaranteed Scottish independence
Forced by Parliament to abdicate, 1327
Brutally murdered shortly afterward

King Edward III, 1327-1377

Son of Edward II
Claimed throne of France, 1337
Landed army in Normandy to begin Hundred Years’ War

Hundred Years’ War 1337-1453

English loss of Normandy in 1204 basic cause of war
French support of Scots also cause
War lasted during reigns of 5 English & 5 French kings
Great English victories at first

Edward, the Black Prince

Son of King Edward III
Father of King Richard II
Wore black armor
Commanded wing of army at Crecy at age 16
Defeated French army at Poitiers & captured French king

Battle of Crecy, 1346

France had 3 times the wealth, supplies, & manpower of English
France had many knights
English fought mainly with archers & infantry
Great English victory

Black Death (Bubonic Plague)

1348-1349 in England
Wiped out a third to half the population
Deaths from plague created labor shortage
Peasants demanded better wages & working conditions
Government responded with reactionary laws to preserve serfdom
Widespread peasant unrest

Richard II, 1377-1399

Son of Edward, the Black Prince
King at age 10
John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster) real ruler at first
High taxes led to peasant rebellion

Peasants’ Revolt (Wat Tyler’s Rebellion), 1381

Peasants object to forced labor & heavy taxes
New tax touched off revolt
Blacksmith Wat Tyler led protest movement
Riots & violence broke out all over England
Tyler led 100,000 peasants who marched on London & demanded to see king
14-year old king faced mob alone (royal advisors had deserted him)
King listened to peasants’ demands
Peasants demanded end to serfdom, low rents on land, & end of oppressive labor laws
King agreed to demands
Most peasants went home
Tyler remained with 30,000 supporters to gain further concessions
Mayor of London murders Wat Tyler
Troops come to support of king & drive away rebels
Promises of king were ignored
Oppression of peasants continued
But serfdom slowly begins to die out after revolt
Labor shortage from Black Death & peasant revolt weakens feudalism
New class of yeoman (free) farmers begins to emerge
Capitalism slowly begins to emerge

John Wycliffe & the Lollards

Oxford professor
Challenged corruption & some beliefs of Roman Catholic church
Movement diverse and increasingly radical
Lollards preached equality of men before God & communal ownership of all things
Opposed tyranny, especially in the church
Beginnings of democratic ideas & practices
Priesthood of all believers
Wycliffe produced first English translation of Bible
Lollards promoted many beliefs & practices taken up later in the Protestant Reformation

King Henry IV, 1399-1413

King Richard II seized estates of his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke (John of Gaunt’s son)
Bolingbroke raised army & forced Richard from throne
Became King Henry IV
Richard died in prison – probably murdered
Henry IV , first ruler of House of Lancaster (one branch of Plantagenet family)
Parliament elected him king
Henry admitted that Parliament had right to choose king
Important increase in power of Parliament
Revolts & conspiracies dominate first 8 years of reign
Encouraged towns & trade to develop
Persecuted Lollards

King Henry V, 1413-1422

Eldest son of Henry IV
Deeply religious (Catholic)
Persecuted Lollards
Renewed Hundred Years’ War with France
Won great victory at Agincourt, 1415
Very popular warrior king
Early death saved him from disastrous consequences of war
French soldiers bragged on eve of battle
Henry & his men prayed
French army greatly outnumbered English at Agincourt
Another triumph for the English longbow
Over 7000 French killed including many great nobles
About 500 English killed
Agincourt led to Treaty of Troyes: Henry declared heir to French crown
Henry married daughter of French king, but died 2 years later
Early English victories were won by archers & infantry with long pikes
Hundred Years’ War led to evolution of artillery
Gunpowder changes nature of warfare

King Henry VI, 1422-1461

Last English king of House of Lancaster
Held thrones of both England & France when he was 1 year old
Pious & gentle ruler, but weak, with attacks of insanity

Joan of Arc

French peasant girl who claimed saints spoke to her
Led French army to rescue Orleans from English, 1429
Escorted French king to coronation at Reims Cathedral
National heroine
Captured by Burgundians & turned over to English
Convicted of witchcraft & burned at the stake
Martyrdom inspired French peasants to victory
But English army already exhausted & country nearly bankrupt

Results of War

English kings lost nearly all their French possessions
English kings now free to focus on England
English language now spoken by all classes in England
England exhausted, bankrupt, & on eve of civil war

Wars of the Roses, 1455-1485

English nobles took advantage of weakness of Henry VI & misgoverned England in their own selfish interests
Popular uprising in 1450 further divided & weakened England
2 rival branches of Plantagenet family:
House of Lancaster (symbol of Red Rose): ruled since 1399
House of York (symbol of White Rose): challenged rule of Henry VI
Wars mostly between “rival gangs of nobles”
Common people largely indifferent
Reduced noble class through death in war & executions
Hastened end of feudalism
Strengthened central government & power of king

King Edward IV, 1461-1470, 1471-1483

Leader of House of York
Took throne from Henry VI after Battle of Towton, 1461
Fled to Holland when rival noble supported Henry, 1470-71
Returned with army & recovered throne
Imprisoned Henry & probably had him murdered

King Edward V, 1483

Son of Edward IV
Became king at age 12
Uncle Richard made protector, but had Edward & brother imprisoned when mother’s family tried to seize power
Richard probably murdered Edward & brother

King Richard III, 1483-1485

Brother of Edward IV
Last Plantagenet king
Reign brought on revolt that ended Wars of the Roses
Governed well, but people tired of civil disturbances
Lancastrian nobles plotted against him

Henry Tudor

Earl of Richmond of House of Lancaster
Exiled in France
Invaded England
Won Battle of Bosworth Field, 1485
King Richard killed in battle
End of Wars of Roses
Henry Tudor became King Henry VII
Descended from House of Lancaster
Married daughter of Edward IV, uniting Houses of Lancaster & York
Tudor family replaced Plantagenet family
Tudors rule England next 118 years

End of the Middle Ages

Many historians consider end of Wars of Roses as the end of Middle Ages & beginning of modern world history in England
But Henry VII changed very little
His son Henry VIII also changed very little during his first 20 years as king
Both Henrys strengthened the power of the king
But the Medieval Roman Catholic church still dominated religious beliefs
Middle Ages really didn’t end until the Renaissance & especially the Protestant Reformation
This will take place in England mostly in the 1530s

Lecture 8: Tudor England

Tudor Monarchy 1485-1603

1485 – Wars of the Roses ends
Henry VII, first king of House of Tudor
Sometimes considered the end of Middle Ages & beginning of Modern History
But Henry VII changed very little
The great changes took place under his descendants

King Henry VII, 1485-1509

Killed Richard III at Battle of Bosworth Field to end Wars of Roses
Married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, uniting Houses of Lancaster & York
Tough, cold, shrewd, & sly
Kept nobles in fear by increasing political power of wealthy middle classes
Taxed common people heavily
Eliminated rivals to throne
Ended several revolts & conspiracies
Sent first English explorers to N. America
Arranged marriage between oldest son Arthur & Catherine of Aragon (Spain)
Secured young widow Catherine & her dowry for second son Henry
Arranged marriage between daughter Margaret & James IV of Scotland
“Best businessman to sit on English throne” – left greatest fortune ever

Renaissance

Began in 14^th century Italy
Renaissance means “rebirth”
“Rebirth” of Classical (ancient Greek & Roman) learning, art, architecture, philosophy, languages
Renaissance coincided with Western invention of printing
Made books cheap & spreads learning

Leonardo Da Vinci, 1452-1519

Genius & leading figure of Renaissance
One of greatest artists of Western world
Great inventor, scientist, thinker
Designed many scientific inventions which were centuries ahead of their time
Kept notebook with writing which can be read only with a mirror

Great Renaissance artist Michelangelo: Sistine Chapel

Raphael was another great artist of Italian Renaissance (or High Renaissance)
Directed construction of St. Peter’s Church in Rome
Paintings influenced artists up to early 1900s

Erasmus

Dutch priest & scholar
Tried to reform church
Published Greek New Testament, 1516, which was of great value for Protestant Reformation

Renaissance

Philosophy of Humanism emphasized study of humanities
Great impact on literature & arts
Study of ancient writings (like Bible) in original languages
Paved way for Protestant Reformation

Protestant Reformation

Greatest intellectual movement in Western history
Fought corruption of Roman Catholic Church
Wanted to end power of pope & priests
Gave people Bible in their own language
Taught priesthood of all believers

Martin Luther, 1483-1546: Leader of Protestant Reformation

Studied law
Became priest after powerful conversion experience
Deeply troubled by his own sin
Discovered Doctrine of Grace in Bible
Luther offered to debate 95 theses with other priests, 1517
Luther defends himself at Diet of Worms
Luther condemned at Diet of Worms
Luther “kidnapped” on way home from Diet
Luther held captive at Wartburg Castle for his own protection
Luther became matchmaker for liberated nuns
One nun refused two matches Luther made
So Luther married her “to spite the devil and the pope”
Northern European states followed Reformation
France, Spain, Italy, S. Germany remained Roman Catholic

Henry VIII, 1509-1547

Devout Roman Catholic & amateur theologian
Opposed Luther & Protestant Reformation
Henry wrote pamphlet condemning Luther
Pope gave King Henry title “Defender of the Faith”
Henry dedicated his pamphlet to the Pope
Spent his father’s wealth on foreign wars
Built navy
Henry’s Queen was Catherine of Aragon, a Spanish Roman Catholic
Catherine failed to produce son in 19 years of marriage
Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a Protestant
Henry wanted to divorce Catherine
Only Pope can grant Henry’s divorce
But Pope cannot afford to offend Spain
Pope refused divorce
Growing Protestant sentiment in England
Parliament passed 2 acts, 1534
Declared Pope had no authority in England
Act of Supremacy: King (not Pope) head of the church
Church under new leadership, but most Roman Catholic ideas and practices remain
Henry had expanded the power of king
He spent his father’s wealth on war
As head of Church, he disbanded the monasteries & took over their land
Henry raised much money selling monastery land, mostly to rising middle class
Major social revolution

Six wives of Henry VIII

Anne Boleyn produced a daughter – future Queen Elizabeth
Henry sought other women
Falsely accused Anne of infidelity
Henry married Jane Seymour
She gave him a son, Edward VI
Jane died shortly after childbirth
Wife #4: Anne of Cleves, a political marriage to a German princess
Ended in divorce
Wife #5: Catherine Howard
Convicted of misconduct & executed, 1542
Wife #6: Catherine Parr outlived Henry
Henry died 1547
Legacy: undisputed supremacy of king
Church of England under control of king
Succeeded by his son

Edward VI, 1547-1553

Child king
Protestant regents control government
Made England truly Protestant
Edward died at age 16
Protestants attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on throne
Ruled 9 days
Later executed
Edward’s elder sister Mary became queen

Queen Mary I, 1553-1558

Daughter of Catherine of Aragon
Devout Roman Catholic
Married to King Philip II of Spain
Forced England to return to Roman Catholic religion
Persecuted Protestants
Burned 300 at the stake
Many Protestants went to exile in Europe
Exposed to leading Protestant Reformers like John Calvin in Geneva
Mary joined Spain in war with France

Queen Elizabeth I, 1558-1603

Daughter of Anne Boleyn
Moderate Protestant: restored church of England
Policy of religious toleration to all who were loyal to England

Beginnings of Puritanism

Puritans wanted to “purify” Church of England (of its Roman Catholic beliefs & practices)
Puritanism began among Marian exiles who studied under Calvin in Geneva
They will be an increasingly important force in English history
3 main religions: Anglicans, Puritans, & Catholics

Elizabeth’s goal was increased power & prestige of England

Elizabeth I never married – said she was “married to England”

Elizabeth was very popular with her subjects

Elizabeth’s Foreign Policy

Outwardly promoted peace
Secretly encouraged “Sea Dogs” like Sir Francis Drake to plunder Spanish shipping
Supported Dutch rebellion against Spain
Spanish decided to get rid of English (and Protestant) menace

Sir Francis Drake

Great English pirate
Plundered Spanish colonies & ships
Greatest voyage 1577-1580 – second man in history to sail around the world
Brought back much Spanish treasure
Drake raided Spanish port of Cadiz, 1587
Sank 30 ships & seized many supplies
Heroic venture remembered as “singeing of the King of Spain’s beard”

King Philip II of Spain

Planned invasion of England
Reasons: piracy of Sea Dogs, Protestant faith of England, English support of Dutch rebellion

Spanish Armada, 1588

Great fleet of Spanish ships
Philip called it the Invincible Armada
130 ships total
40 men-of-war
8000 sailors
50,000 troops: half carried from Spain; half to be transported across Channel from Netherlands
Queen Elizabeth delivered speech to troops preparing defenses against Spanish invasion
Spanish Armada sailed up English Channel for one week
English sent fire ships into Spanish fleet
Smaller, faster English ships attacked scattered Spanish fleet
Battle is turning point in world history
Seadogs, English navy, & fire ships attack & scatter Armada
Armada sailed north to return home
“Protestant Wind” wrecked more of Armada along Scottish & Irish coasts
War continued for many more years
England began to replace Spain as world sea power
Atlantic Ocean now safe for English colonization of New World
English colony at Roanoke, Virginia

The Elizabethan Era

Late period of Elizabeth’s reign a golden age of literature
Beginnings of Modern English
But economy got bad, Irish rebelled, & Earl of Essex led a rebellion in 1601 (he was soon captured & executed)

William Shakespeare, 1564-1616

Greatest of all English writers
Shaped the modern English language
Source of many idioms & expressions
Globe Theater in London: Shakespeare plays were important part of Elizabethan culture

Lecture 9: STUART MONARCHY: 1603-1714 & English Civil War

Queen Elizabeth I, 1558-1603

Elizabeth I died 1603 without heirs
End of House of Tudor
Cousin James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England
Beginning of House of Stuart , 1603-1714

King James I, 1603-1625

King James VI of Scotland at age 1, 1566
Roman Catholic mother Mary, Queen of Scots, forced to give up throne; later executed
Believer in Divine right of kings – belief that kings get right to rule from God & not from the people
Headed strong royal government in Scotland
English parliament opposed James’ attempt to rule as absolute monarch
Supported Church of England (Anglican)

Growth of Puritanism

Puritans: purify the Church of England of its Roman Catholic beliefs & practices
3 major religious groups in England: Anglicans, Puritans, Roman Catholics
Many Puritans in Parliament
Puritans distrust James
James hates Puritans

Authorized Version of Bible (King James Version), 1611

James approved new English translation of Bible
Main reason: to remove Puritan influences
Example: Bible footnotes say Christians may overthrow evil king
Bible helped standardize Modern English

Catholic Challenge to James

Roman Catholic conspiracy: Gunpowder Plot, 1605
Attempt to blow up Parliament when James addressed it
Too many plotters to keep secret
Leader Guy Fawkes arrested
Englishmen celebrated execution of Fawkes
Guy Fawkes Day still celebrated in England with bonfires burning Fawkes in effigy

Religious Intolerance

James opposed both Catholics & Puritans
Authorized translation of Bible (1611) to get rid of Puritan influence
Tried to make Puritans conform to Anglican practices
Wanted all Englishmen to have same religious beliefs & practices
Puritans began to leave England
Separatists (Puritans who wanted to leave Church of England) sailed to America on Mayflower
Established Plymouth Plantation colony in America, 1620
Non-separating Puritans established Massachusetts Bay Colony (Boston), 1629

King Charles I, 1625-1649

Son of James I
Like father, believed in Divine right of kings
Opposed Puritans
Dissolved Parliament 3 times in next 4 years
“Eleven Years Tyranny”-no Parliament 1629-40
Tried to force Anglican prayer book upon Scottish Presbyterians
Scots rebelled
Charles called new Parliament to get money for Scottish war
Long Parliament: met from 1640-1653
King tried to seize leaders
Civil war broke out 1642

English Civil Wars 1642-1649

King Charles I vs. Parliament
King supported by nobility, gentry, & Anglican clergy
Supporters called Cavaliers
Parliament supported by Puritans & merchants
Called Roundheads because of short hair
Parliament divided; almost defeated at first

Oliver Cromwell: Great Puritan General

Brilliant commander of “Ironsides” – never lost a major battle
Took over New Model Army & reorganized it
Disciplined, fearless, sang Psalms in battle
King Charles captured and tried by Parliament
Cromwell led king’s trial & death sentence
King Charles I beheaded 1649
Supporters saw king as a martyr
Regicide infuriated Roman Catholics & other European states
After execution of Charles I, England became Republic called Commonwealth of England
Cromwell crushed uprisings in Scotland & Ireland
Defeated army loyal to son of late king
But Parliament failed to adopt major reforms
Cromwell dismissed Parliament & ended Commonwealth, 1653
England became Protectorate; Cromwell made Lord Protector
Cromwell offered crown and refused it
Ruled England as a dictator
Cromwell’s guiding principle: “liberty of conscience”
Cromwell raised prestige of England
But Cromwell was hated by many (and still is)
Oliver Cromwell died 1658
Richard Cromwell, son & successor, was weak & ineffective
Forced to resign 1659

The Restoration 1660
King Charles II, 1660-1685

Parliament invited Charles Stuart (son of late king) to return as King Charles II
Charles called the “merry monarch” for his lifestyle & his mistresses
King owed position to Parliament
Sought moderation & compromise
Married to Roman Catholic queen
Fought 2 naval wars (commercial wars) with Dutch
2^nd Anglo-Dutch War led to capture of New Netherland (renamed New York)
Great Plague struck England, killing 68,000 in London alone
Great Fire destroyed London, leading to rebuilding under Sir Christopher Wren

Beginning of political parties

Second half of reign of Charles II saw beginnings of English political parties
Court party supported Anglican Church & king
Country party opposed the government
Parties evolved into Whig Party & Tory Party
Parliament & King’s Ministers gradually gained power at expense of King

King James II, 1685-1688

Brother of Charles II
Roman Catholic
Accepted as king because he was old and his Protestant daughter was next in line for throne
Promoted pro-Catholic policies which alienated many Englishmen

Glorious Revolution or “Bloodless Revolution” 1688

Unexpected birth of son changed things
People feared new Roman Catholic dynasty
Leading politicians invited James’ daughter Mary and son-in-law William to invade England with their army from Netherlands
Almost no one supported King James II
King fled to France

William III and Mary II, 1688-1702

Protestant
Reigned as joint sovereigns
Constitutional Monarchy
Reign established right of Parliament to control succession to throne & to limit power of king (or queen)
Parliament banned Roman Catholics from throne
Made it illegal for king to suspend laws, keep an army in peacetime, or levy taxes without Parliament’s consent
William led England in war against France

Queen Anne, 1702-1714

Protestant daughter of King James II
Sister of Queen Mary II
17 children, but none survived for long
1707 Act of Union created United Kingdom of England and Scotland
Led England in new war against France (War of Spanish Succession)
Died in 1714 without heirs
House of Hanover in Germany succeeded House of Stuart

War of Spanish Succession

Peace of Utrecht 1713 led to beginning of First British Empire
Britain gained parts of Canada, West Indies, Gibraltar, & trade concessions
Assessment of American Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan (architect of American sea power & empire): “Before that war England was one of the sea powers. After it, she was the sea power, without any second.”

Trends and accomplishments of 111-year Stuart Monarchy

Prosperity of England increased threefold
Crowns of England & Scotland united
Beginnings of British overseas Empire
King’s absolute powers greatly reduced
Birth of political parties
Beginnings of modern cabinet (but without a Prime Minister yet)
House of Commons pre-eminent in State
Great growth & influence of Puritanism
Birth of experimental method in science
Great advance of science under Isaac Newton (astronomy, physics, mathematics & calculus)
Birth of Royal Society
John Locke author of new philosophy of Empiricism: All knowledge comes from experience
Political philosophy of Locke promoted spirit of toleration & rationalism – great influence upon American government

Lecture 10: Great Britain in the 18^th century

King George I, 1714-1727
House of Hanover

Second cousin of Queen Anne – her closest Protestant relative
German Prince, House of Hanover
Barely spoke English
Rarely involved in government
Main interests: food, horses, & women

Sir Robert Walpole, 1676-1745

Leader of Whigs – party which supported Hanoverian succession
Chief minister; took control of council
Considered Britain’s first Prime Minister

Constitutional Monarchy

Britain only constitutional monarchy in world at this time
Main principles:
King could not be a Roman Catholic
King could not suspend laws
King depended on Parliament for money & army
King’s ministers answer to Parliament
Power with Parliament, not with King

King George II, 1727-1760

Succeeded father George I
Put down last attempt of Stuarts to regain throne, 1745
Seven Years’ War laid foundation of empire in India & Canada
Growing commercial prosperity & increase in political stability

Industrial Revolution

C. 1750-1850
Made Britain into world superpower
Began with spinning and weaving machines
James Watt, steam engine, 1760s, freed factories from locating near rivers & waterfalls
Cotton gin, 1790s, provided cheap cotton for industrial machines

James Watt, 1736-1819

Scottish engineer
Improved design which made steam power practical
Led to growth of modern industry
Steam engines no longer used only to pump water from mines
Engines used to power factories which could now be located anywhere
Cotton gin made cotton cheap & fed British textile industry
Factory system replaced piecework system where people worked in home
Factories led to growth of cities and urban social problems
Machines replaced workers: Luddites responded by smashing looms

John Wesley, 1703-1791

Leader of Evangelical Revival in England
Emotional & anti-intellectual
Appealed to working class
Emphasized personal faith & good works
Opposed by many Anglicans
Founded Methodist societies – separated from Anglicans 1780s
John Wesley traveled over 400,000 km to preach over 40,000 sermons

George Whitefield, 1714-1770

Anglican preacher & evangelist
Friend of Wesley -contributed to growth of Methodism
Visited American colonies 7 times & led Great Awakening, 1740s
Whitefield preached outdoors when ministers refused to let him preach in their churches

Evangelical Revival

Before revival, Church of England was formal, boring, & insensitive to needs of poor
Methodists reached out to working class
Made faith personal & practical
Inspired religious enthusiasm in millions
Some historians say Evangelical Revival prevented violent revolution & reign of terror as happened in Roman Catholic France in 1790s

William Pitt the Elder, 1708-1778

Opponent of Walpole & later Prime Minister
Architect of British Empire
Two aims: supremacy at sea & capture of French trading posts

British Empire

1756-1763: Seven Years’ War against France
1759: British capture Quebec, Canada
1760: British capture Montreal
British victories in India
Attack on Manila led to British control of tea trade with China
Peace of Paris, 1763: Britain retained Canada, India – beginnings of great empire
North America, 1763: war doubled size of British Empire

King George III, 1760-1820

Succeeded grandfather George II
Tried & failed to increase royal power
Suffered from disease which made him appear mad
Viewed as tyrant by American colonists

British policy toward colonies

Philosophy of mercantilism: colonies exist to provide cheap raw materials and markets for mother country
British Navigation Acts regulated trade & led to smuggling
Seven Years’ War left Britain with large debts
Britain tried to pay part of costs of war by taxing colonies
British taxes provoked American colonies to revolution
Boston Tea Party, 1773, protested British tax on tea
Battle of Lexington, 1775: war began when British troops tried to confiscate American arms
American Declaration of Independence, 1776
Battle of Saratoga, 1777, led to French alliance with Americans
Battle of Yorktown, 1781: last battle of war

Adam Smith, 1723-1790

Founder of modern economics
Wrote The Wealth of Nations, 1776
Opposed English mercantile theory
Advocated free trade & economic liberalism
Government must preserve law & order, enforce justice, defend nation, & provide a few social needs
“Hands off” policy toward business
Foundation for modern capitalism & free markets

Thomas Malthus, 1766-1834

English economist
1798: Essay on the Principle of Population
Influenced Darwin’s ideas on evolution and survival of the fittest
Population increases faster than food supplies
Wars & disease will kill off extra population unless people limited number of their children
Predictions failed to come true
Improved methods of agriculture provided food for increased population
Neo-Malthusians in 20^th century revived ideas on population to promote birth control
Ideas still very controversial

William Pitt the Younger, 1759-1806

Son of William Pitt the Elder
Youngest Prime Minister at age 24
Greatest challenge: French Revolution & rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

French Revolution, 1789-1799

Economic crisis from Seven Years’ War & War of American Revolution
Paris mob inspired by democratic ideals, liberty & equality
Soon degenerated into mob rule & tyranny
Executed king & queen
Thousands more executed in Reign of Terror
1793: France at war with England & other nations

Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769-1821

Military genius
Promoted to general in 1793
Seized power 1799
Soon at war with most of Europe
1804 crowned himself Emperor of France
Won many battles
Controlled most of Europe by 1812
1812: forced to retreat from Moscow with great loss

Horatio Nelson

Destroyed Napoleon’s navy at Trafalgar, 1805
Gave Britain control of seas & saved England from invasion
Napoleon’s response: Berlin & Milan Decrees closed Europe to British trade
British response to Napoleon: blockade of Europe (provoked war with America)

War of 1812: Britain vs. United States

Main causes: interference with U.S. neutrality & shipping rights & kidnapping of U.S. seamen
Napoleonic War far more important to Britain
Final American victory at New Orleans 3 weeks after war ended by treaty
Led to spirit of American nationalism & pride in having defeated Britain twice (but Americans overlook French aid in Revolution & British preoccupation with Napoleon in 1812)

Troubles in Ireland

Irish hated English rule & oppression
1798: rebellion in Ireland
British response: Act of Union, 1801
Ireland joined with Great Britain to form United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
Ended Irish Parliament & put British Parliament in control of all British Isles
But Roman Catholics still forbidden to hold office or serve in Parliament until 1829

Retreat from Moscow, 1812: great French disaster & beginning of the end

Arthur Wellesley, 1^st Duke of Wellington

Britain’s great general of Napoleonic Wars
Led Peninsular Campaign in Spain
Led Britain in final victory at Waterloo, 1815
Wellington beat Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium
Prussian army arrived at end of day to finish off remainder of Napoleon’s army
Napoleon spent rest of life in exile on island prison
Congress of Vienna, 1815: created “Concert of Europe” & began 99 years without a general war

Results of war

After 20 years of war, Britain emerged as strongest, richest, & most powerful country in world
But in 1815 Britain seemed on edge of bankruptcy & social revolution
Starvation drove poor to destroy machines which they viewed as cause of their misery
Government responded with brutal repression
Britain in 1815: fear, envy, greed, and little hope for most British people

Lecture 11: Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century

King George IV, 1820-1830

Regent for father George III, 1811-1820
Disgraceful private life
Had no part in reforms of era
Artistic taste: persuaded government to buy paintings which became National Gallery
Commissioned many beautiful buildings

King William IV, 1830-1837

Son of George III who succeeded brother
Three of England’s greatest reforms passed during his reign
He & brother brought much discredit to British Monarchy

Queen Victoria, 1837-1901

Succeeded uncle who died without heirs
63-year reign longest in English history
Britain reached height of power during her reign
Colonial empire & industrial expansion
Reign called Victorian Age
Restored prestige of Monarchy after reigns of two irresponsible kings
Hard-working queen concerned with welfare of her people – gained their affection & admiration
Britain became richest nation in world & controlled largest empire in history
British Empire controlled ¼ of world’s land & people
Wise & capable monarch
Accepted change from active rule to symbolic rule
Probably reason British monarchy has survived while most other monarchies have not
Married cousin, Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1840
4 sons & 5 daughters
Prince loved & respected by people
Assisted wife
Albert died 1861
Victoria never recovered from her loss – dressed in black for many years
Example of polite society
Emphasis on high morality
Strong family values
Era of imperialism

Industrial Revolution

Cotton mills & textile industry
Coal mines
Blast furnaces & iron & steel industry
Railways began in 1830
Canals
Roads
Machine tools: machines which make other machines

Contradictions in Victorian England

Great wealth
Harsh labor & inhuman exploitation
World supremacy
Appalling slum conditions & immense human misery
Ideal of political democracy & universal happiness
Reality of economic distress & oppression
But many saw these problems & sought to fix them through peaceful means

Era of Reform

Dissenters & Roman Catholics granted political equality by stages throughout 19^th century
Slavery outlawed throughout British Empire, 1833
Local government overhauled and made more responsible to people
New police force created to replace military
Free trade thought led to economic growth
Brutal prison conditions & harsh punishments for minor crimes corrected in 1820s
Some 220 offenses punishable by death – many ended
1824: Parliament removed laws forbidding workers to form trade unions
1833 Factory Act said no child under 9 could work in factory; no child under 18 could work more than 12 hours a day
Parliamentary reform greatest issue

Reform Bill of 1832

Lowered property qualifications so most of middle class could vote
But only 5% of people could vote because working class ignored
Provided model for later reforms

Chartist Movement: early1800s

First Nationwide working class movement
The People’s Charter of 1838 demanded:
1. Votes for all males
2. Secret ballot
3. No property qualifications for members of Parliament
4. Salaries for members of Parliament
5. Annual elections
6. Equal electoral districts
Movement did not achieve these goals, but all except #5 were later adopted
But Chartist meetings frequently provoked confrontation & violence

Results of 19^th century reforms

Beginnings of modern forms of:
Representative parliamentary government
Party system
Cabinet system
Ministerial political responsibility
Permanent civil service
Reforms were devised to reconcile theory of “sovereignty of parliament” with movements demanding “sovereignty of people”

Opium War 1839-1842

Britain sent Macartney diplomatic mission to China, 1793
Dismissed as barbarians bearing tribute
Second mission of Amherst likewise dismissed; British insulted
Britain wanted Chinese products, especially tea
China didn’t need British products
Opium from British India reversed the flow of silver
Chinese Emperor tried to end opium trade & resulting destruction of millions of lives
British refused to deliver opium until factory besieged
British assumed confiscated opium would be back on the market
Chinese destroyed opium before the eyes of the foreigners

British technological superiority

Great Britain was the first nation to benefit from the Industrial Revolution
British Empire was the result of Industrial Revolution
British victory in China in 1842 was due to Britain’s technological superiority resulting from the Industrial Revolution
Second Opium War fought in part over insult to British flag

Crimean War, 1853-1856, fought to prevent Russian expansion in Black Sea

Britain, France, Ottoman Empire, & Sardinia fought Russia

Crimean War result of religious, commercial, & strategic rivalries

Florence Nightingale

Born into wealthy family
Studied medicine to help the sick & needy
Took over nursing care in Crimea
Cleaned up filthy conditions & saved countless lives
Founder of modern nursing profession

Charles Darwin, 1809-1882

British naturalist who developed theory of evolution based on natural selection
Theory sometimes called survival of the fittest
Learned theory from grandfather Erasmus Darwin
The Origin of Species, published 1859, shocked people who believed God created the world
Major controversy in religion & science
Survival of fittest applied to human endeavors
Led to theories of racial superiority – some races more highly evolved than others
Used to justify imperialism & colonialism
Used in 20^th century as justification for genocide (by Hitler, for example)

Colonialism

Colonies seen as proof of national greatness
Source of raw materials
Market for manufactured goods
Africa chief attraction
Also interest in Far East & Pacific islands as naval outposts
Africa became focus for European imperialism
All African nations except Liberia & Abyssinia dominated by a European power
Britain controlled East Africa from Capetown to Cairo

William Gladstone, 1809-1898

Served 4 terms as Prime Minister & leader of Liberal Party
Lowered income taxes & import duties
Fought to end abuses in Ireland
Preferred conciliation to war
1884 Reform Bill brought GB closer to universal manhood suffrage

Benjamin Disraeli, 1804-1881

First person of Jewish ancestry to serve as British Prime Minister
Conservative leader
Aggressive foreign policy
Purchased Suez Canal as link to empire in India
Worked to improve working & living conditions

Boer War, 1899-1902: British imperialists arrive after discovery of gold

Nearly all other nations condemned British war against Boer farmers
Only United States supported Britain
Many British also opposed war
Forced British to reconsider policy of “splendid isolation” and consider world public opinion
British alliance with Japan was one result
British formed entente with France shortly afterward

Britain in the 19^th Century

Prolonged industrial revolution
Producer of cheap manufactured goods
Moderate & gradual political reforms
Model of constitutional government
Controlled largest world empire in history

Britain’s accomplishments in the 19^th century

Abolished or diminished evils of:
Slavery
Ruthless exploitation of workers
Poverty & destitution
Disease & epidemics
Bigotry & ignorance

Britain’s liabilities in the 19^th century

Continued squalor of mining & industrial cities
Rural poverty
Menace of mass unemployment
Fear of economic crisis
Threat of modern, scientific war

End of Victorian Era

1815-1914: 99 years with no general European war
People optimistically believed they were in new era of peace
Britain had solved peacefully problems which had led to violence, revolution, & war in other countries
European nations formed rival alliances
Competition for resources and colonies created tension
Events moved European nations to brink of war

Lecture 12: Great Britain in the 20^th century

King Edward VII, 1901-1910, House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

Represented his mother in public during her widowhood
Patron of arts & sciences & sportsman
Great interest in foreign affairs – visits brought great goodwill to India, Ireland, & Russia

King George V, 1910-1936, House of Windsor

Naval vice admiral 1903
Courageous leadership during WWI made him very popular
Conscientious attention to his duties
Devoted much time to strengthening ties with vast empire
1917 adopted House & Family name of Windsor

British Advances in Science

Nuclear physics: J.J. Thomson revealed structure of the atom
Ernest Rutherford’s research into radio-activity revolutionized understanding of matter
Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge laid foundation of modern nuclear physics

World War I, 1914-1918: political & economic rivalry

Central Powers

Germany
Austria-Hungary
Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

Allied Powers

Britain
France
Italy
Russia (until 1917)
United States (beginning 1917)
Japan
China & others

British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey, August, 1914, when Britain declared war on Germany:
“The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

Costs of the Great War

1915: 300,000 British casualties in France
July 1, 1916, beginning of Somme Offensive cost Britain 60,000 casualties (20,000 killed)
Offensive lasted five months
400,000 British, 200,000 French, and 500,000 German casualties
Passchendaele, 1917: British gained 8 km at cost of 400,000 men
Before 1917 one French soldier was killed on average every minute
Total dead from British Empire: almost 1 million (744,000 from United Kingdom)
Total wounded: nearly 3 million
Total shipping sunk: 6 million tons & loss of 40% of merchant fleet
Taxes, loans, indebtedness to U.S., etc.
Debased moral standards: poison gas & hate propaganda – victory at all costs

Battle of Jutland, 1916

Largest battleship battle in history
Minor German tactical success
Major British strategic victory
Germany changed strategy
Turned to unrestricted submarine warfare

Lusitania: sinking by German U-boat angered neutral U.S.

Over 1000 passengers died; over 100 were Americans

But the British used the ship to smuggle weapons

America began to favor Allies after sinking of Lusitania

American army turned tide of battle

Treaty of Versailles ended war

May 4, 1919: Versailles Treaty Announced in China

Shandong Peninsula to Japan because of secret treaty
May 4 Movement began in China
Birth of CPC
Disillusionment with Western Democracies

Versailles Treaty

Established League of Nations
Gave Britain control over German colonies in Africa & Ottoman possessions in Middle East
Forced Germany to accept all guilt for war
Forced Germany to pay huge reparations
Led to great disillusionment with treaty & results of war
Laid foundation for rise of Adolf Hitler
Failure of Versailles directly led to World War II

Results of war

Massive loss of life: nearly 750,000 British soldiers & sailors died
End of 4 European monarchies & ruling families
Destruction of 4 empires:

- Germany
- Austria-Hungary
- Ottoman Turkey
- Russia

Two of Britain’s best customers before war – Germany & Russia – could no longer afford British products
U.S. & Japan took away much of Britain’s export business
Economic depression follows

Irish Question

1919: Irish leaders declared Ireland independent
Bloodshed followed
1921: southern Ireland becomes British dominion, the Irish Free State – independent but officially loyal to British crown
Total independence by 1937
Protestant Northern Ireland remained part of United Kingdom

New (mostly American) Technology changes the World

Internal combustion engine made possible motor cars & airplanes
Motion picture industry
Radio
New industries transform the culture

Roaring 20’s: social rebellion, escapism, & cult of self-indulgence

Rise of Labour Party

New socialist party rose as alternative to Liberal & Conservative Parties
Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, elected 1920s
Depression created coalition of all 3 parties to deal with emergency
Government raised taxes, abandoned free trade, & cut its own spending
But it had little impact on ending Depression

King Edward VIII, 1936

Oldest son of George V
Widely travelled
Great concern for underprivileged & working class
Gave up throne to marry American divorcee
Spent rest of life as Duke of Windsor

King George VI, 1936-1952

Became king after brother abdicated
Popular king with modest personality
Shared dangers & hardships with people during WWII
Empire began to die out during his reign
Beginnings of socialism & welfare state

Adolf Hitler, 1889-1945

Austrian art student who served heroically in World War I
Hated Jews and Treaty of Versailles
Founded NSDAP or Nazi Party
Wrote Mein Kampf while in prison for treason
Brutal German dictator

Benito Mussolini, 1883-1945

Founder Fascist Party
Ruled Italy 21 years
Took title Il Duce (The Leader)
Inspiration to Adolf Hitler

Tojo Hideki, 1884-1948

Japanese Army general who helped provoke Manchurian Incident of 1931
Encouraged assassination of Japanese civilian leaders
Promoted war with U.S.
Led Japan during WWII
Hanged in 1948

Munich Conference: policy of appeasement encouraged Hitler

Hitler took Sudetenland, all of Czechoslovakia, then attacked Poland

British Army failed to prevent fall of France

Blitzkrieg (“Lightning War”) conquered most of Europe

Hitler planned to invade Britain

Germans bombed London for months while RAF rebuilt

Winston Churchill, 1874-1965

Prime Minister, 1940-1945 & 1951-1955
“I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.”
Defied Nazis and gave courage to British people

Atlantic Conference: Germany first target; then Japan

Rommel in Africa beaten by British & American armies

Hitler’s attack on Russia major German blunder

Germans won quick victories at first

Germans began policy of genocide in Russia

Dresden: Bombing campaign targeted German cities

U.S. led invasion of Normandy, D-Day, June 6, 1944

German General Jodl signs surrender, May, 1945

Yalta Conference: Russia agreed to enter war against Japan

Atomic bombing of Hiroshima led to Japanese surrender

Nagasaki was destroyed 3 days later

The Holocaust: German genocide against Jews

Results of World War II

End of British Empire
End of colonialism around the world
Labour government came to power in landslide victory
Created Welfare State & Socialism
Labour policies led to “British Disease”
Labour policies ended by reforms of Margaret Thatcher, 1980s

The Welfare State

Social security system expanded to care for people “from the cradle to the grave”
Nationalized many industries: put private industry under state control
Nationalized industries: Bank of England, coal mines, iron & steel industry, railways & trucking, airlines & aircraft manufacturers, & automobile industry
Welfare State brought steep rise in crime
Conditions failed to improve until socialism ended in 1980s

Sir Winston Churchill warned of growing Communist danger

Beginning of Cold War
“A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory…. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent.”

Queen Elizabeth II, 1952-

Became heir apparent at age 10 when father became King George VI
Married Prince Philip of Greece
Son Charles, born 1948, is still Prince of Wales
End of British Empire during her reign
Rise and fall of Labour Party socialism & welfare state
But queen largely a ceremonial figure with no real political power

Margaret Thatcher, 1979-1991

Conservative leader
First woman Prime Minister, 1979-1991
Held office longer than any other PM of 20^th century
Replaced socialism & welfare state with market economy & privatization

Tony Blair & Gordon Brown

Britain Today

Barriers between social classes greatly reduced
Leaders no longer drawn from nobility
Every P.M. since 1964 middle or lower class origin
Protestant-Catholic conflict in Northern Ireland serious until recent years
1982 war with Argentina over Falkland Islands
Scotland & Wales given own parliaments in 1997
Once the world’s richest & most powerful nation with the largest empire in history
No longer a world superpower
Remains an important political & economic power & a leader in the European Union
But changes within are transforming Britain into an entirely new nation

Chinese and World History

From the beginnings of civilization to the present

Study Guide: INTRODUCTION TO GREAT BRITAIN

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